Why Are Drugs Classified in the Categories They Are Essay Example for Free

Why Are Drugs Classified in the Categories They Are Essay 1.Why are drugs classified in the categories they are? The term drug class generally refers to the area affected by a drug or its effect on the body (BIO-316V Module 2 Lecture, 2012). Many drugs can fit into more than one category, but they are usually classified by their therapeutic action. A drug’s therapeutic category refers to its purpose—the diseases or conditions it treats (Drug Classifications, 2013). Drugs can also be classified by the chemical type of the active ingredient. 2.Give a description of the actions of drugs in each category. Central Nervous System: Anticonvulsants: These drugs are used to control/prevent seizures in patients who have epilepsy, seizure disorders, traumatic brain injuries, or other cerebral disorders ((BIO-316V Module 2 Lecture, 2012). Antidepressants: These drugs are used to treat neurotransmitter deficiencies (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). It can take weeks for the drug to reach the appropriate blood level to have the desired effect. Antianxiety/sedative medications: These drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders and sleep disorders. Barbiturates and benzodiazepines enhance the actions of the inhibitory neurotransmitter, gammaaminobutyruc acid. Agents in both classes are effective sedative-hypnotics , antianxiety agents, and anticonvulsants. (Olson, J., 2012). Antipsychotics: These are medications that are used to treat psychotic episodes and serious mental disorders (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Schizophrenia is an example of a psychotic disorder that can be treated with an antipsychotic medication. Anti emetics: These drugs treat nausea and vomiting and help control motion sickness (Olson, J., 2012). Cardiovascular drugs: Antihypertensives: These include diuretics which reduce blood pressure and edema by increasing urine production. (Olson, J., 2012). Antiadrenergics: These medications increase blood pressure by stimulating the heart and/or constricting peripheral blood vessels. (Olson, J., 2012). Vasodilators: These drugs help lower one’s blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels (Olson, J., 2012). Vasoconstrictors: These help increase one’s blood pressure by constricting the blood vessels (Olson, J., 2012). Anti-anginals: Nitrates dilate large myocardial arteries to increase blood supply to the  heart. They also reduce cardiac preload by reducing venous tone which allows blood pooling in the periphery (Olson, J., 2012). Anti-arrhythmias: These drugs influence cardiac conduction properties and may revert an abnormal rhythm to sinus rhythm (Olson, J., 2012). Anticoagulants, antiplatelets, and thrombolytics: Anticoagulants inhibit coagulation, antiplatelets prevent platelet aggregation and thrombolytics degrade clots that have already formed (Olson, J., 2012). All of these drugs need to be given carefully to avoid causing excessive bleeding. They should not be given to patients with ulcers, patients who are pregnant, or those who are suffering from a hemorrhagic stroke (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Lipid Lowering Agents: These drugs help one reduce blood cholesterol when diet and exercise control fail (Olson, J., 2012). Analgesic medications: Analgesic medications are commonly known as pain relievers. Many are over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. Others are given to the patient by prescription for pain relief (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Narcotic medications stimulate central nervous system receptors known as opioid receptors and cause a decrease in the perception of pain. An overdose of narcotics can result in suppression of the respiratory system, leading to respiratory arrest (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) alleviate pain associated with inflammation (e.g., Aleve). They are used to relieve arthritis and other joint pain. Acetaminophen is a common pain reliever that does not cause bleeding. It is often given instead of NSAIDs (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Antihistamines and Endocrine medications: Antihistamine medications block the immune responses of itching, hives, and swelling caused by the release of histamines. These are available OTC (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Diabetes and hypothyroidism are two glandular conditions that are often observed by the health care professional. Antidiabetic medications are necessary for patients who cannot balance their blood sugar and tissue sugar. Insulin is the medication prescribed for insulin-dependent diabetes (type-1 diabetes) (BIO-316V Module  Lecture, 2012). Hypothyroidism is controlled by common hormone preparations designed to enhance thyroid function. The most common of these is thyroxin (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Hyperthyroidism is typically controlled by a medication called methimazole and it inhibits transformation of inorganic iodine to organic iodine (Olson, J., 2012). Bronchodilators help open constricted airways in patients who have respiratory constriction such as asthma and/or COPD (Olson, J., 2012). Vasopressin is a drug which promotes reabsorption of water in the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidneys and vasoconstricts blood vessels. Vasopressin and DDAVP are synthetic analogs of arginine vasopressin used to treat diabetes insipidus. (Olson, J., 2012). Desmopressin is used to treat acute epistaxis and GI hemorrhage and also used to maintain hemostasis during surgery in patients who have hemophilia A and Von Willebrand’s disease (Olson, J., 2012). Oxytocin induces contraction in the gravid uterus and promotes milk ejaculation from the post partum breast (Olson, J., 2012). Oral contraceptives hel p prevent pregnancy (Olson, J., 2012). Corticosteroids: These include Hydrocortisone, Prednisone, Prednisolone, Triamcinolone, Dexamethasone, and Fludrocortisone. These medications are typically used for respiratory issues such as asthma, and a few of them care also used as an anti-inflammatory agent to help reduce swelling and allow the patient to breathe better. Prednisone is the drug of choice for maintenance therapy of severe asthma. Prednisone doesn’t just help reduce swelling in the lungs; however, it can be used for other inflammatory issues all over the body (Olson, J., 2012). Anti infective agents: Antibiotics are drugs used to fight infections caused by bacteria. As their name implies, antibiotics are anti-life agents as far as bacteria are concerned (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Antifungal drugs are used to combat all sorts of fungal infections, from athletes foot to histoplasmosis. They are being used more often now in the combating of AIDS-related fungal infections (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Antiviral agents fight viral disease at the cellular level. Viruses enter into cells and propagate within them. Antibiotics have no effect on a virus once it has entered a cell. Antiviral agents are designed to interfere with the  replication of viruses (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Chemotherapy Agents: Chemotherapy is typically used to treat cancer. This is achieved by using a combination of drugs that are most toxic to the particular cancer cells of an individual patient. They are very potent and could be harmful to the caregiver (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). GI Agents: Antidiarrheals: These drugs help control diarrhea amd most are sold OTC, although there are a few that can be prescribed and are more potent than the OTC drugs (Olson, J., 2012). Laxatives: These drugs are the opposite of antidiarrheals, as they help a patient who is unable to have a bowel movement (Olson, J., 2012). Antacids provide symptomatic relief of gastric acid irritation (Olson, J., 2012). Anti ulcer drugs help treat or prevent ulcers by either neutralizing gastric acid or preventing the production of acid (Olson, J., 2012). 3.What is chemotherapy and which diseases are treated this way? Chemotherapy by definition is the combination of two or more drugs used to treat a disease (BIO-316V Module Lecture, 2012). Most anticancer agents act by inhibiting cell proliferation by either damaging DNA or preventing DNA repair (Olson, J., 2012). Chemotherapeutic regimens often consist of several agents that have different mechanisms of action and minimize overlapping toxic effects (Olson, J., 2012). Most anticancer drugs cause bone marrow suppression which is why bone marrow sparing drugs are often included in combination regimens (OIson, J., 2012). Chemotherapy is used to treat cancer. 4.Give examples of how contrast media are used to produce an image. Contrast studies provide some information that standard x-rays cannot. During a contrast study, you get a dose of a contrast material that outlines, highlights, or fills in parts of the body so that they show up more clearly on an x-ray. The contrast material may be given by mouth, as an enema, as an injection,or through a catheter put into various tissues of the body. For most of these tests, the images can be captured either on x-ray film or by a computer (American Cancer Society, 2013). An image is produced on a radiograph when the content of iodine in the blood is sufficient to  prevent the penetration of the photons emitted by the X-ray tube (BIO 316V Module 2 Lecture, 2012). 5.Compare ionic and non-ionic contrast media. Ionic contrast media carry the iodine to the organ that is to be visualized. In the chemical attachment of the iodine to the water molecule, positive cations are produced as a side effect. Non-ionic does not mean that the contrast media contain no iodine; rather, it means that non-ionic contrast media contain no positive cations to disrupt the balance of the blood plasma. The immune system does not recognize it as foreign matter and is usually not aroused (BIO 316V Module 2 Lecture, 2012). References: American Cancer Society, 2013. Retrieved on September 6, 2013 from http://www.cancer.org/treatment/understandingyourdiagnosis/examsandtestdescriptions/i magingradiologytests/imaging-radiology-tests-xrays BIO-316V Module 2 Lecture, 2012. Grand Canyon University. Drug Classifications, 2013. Anthem Education. Retrieved on September 6, 2013 from http://www.anthem.edu/pharmacy-technician-school/drug-classifications/

Insomnia :: essays research papers

Insomnia Insomnia Almost everyone experiences insomnia now and then. When one believes he must be in bed by a certain time every night or that he needs a certain number of hours of sleep, it may be the very thing that is preventing him from going to sleep (Munson 21). It is unfortunately true that many people still suffer from poor sleep but do not know that there are numerous programs that can help them. Insomnia, which is due to various causes and includes a vaiety of symptoms, can be reduced or eliminated in a number of ways. Stress is one of the main causes in determining insomnia. It is a fact of every day life and can be defined as any event which causes a significant emotional response. Happy occasions such as getting married, promoted, or going on a vacation can cause stress reaction, not only because because participation in the event is occurring but also in the preparation. More obvious events that occur throughout one's life are the loss of a job, a loved one, or the need for surg ery. In such major life changes, the sources of the emotional response is much more easily identified (Shapiro MacFarlane Hussain 49). There are two types of stress: bad stress or negative stress which destroys your ability to operate at capacity, mentally and physically and good stress which improves your performance (Shapiro 49-50). There are different ways to reduce stress. One should try to find a job he really enjoys. It is not the stress of work that wears one out but the stress of frustration and failure. Two big causes of stress on the job are not knowing what is expected and not having adequate facts or tools. Escaping for a while is another method to help eliminate stress. One can visit a friend, go to a movie, or shop. When he returns, he can attempt to cope with the problem. However, it does not help to keep escaping, the individual should try to cope with problems as promptly as they arise (Hauri 111). Even though it is often difficult to make changes in lifestyle, the effort is worth it. Exchanging stress for a sense of control can lift a heavy weight from one's shoulders. The more control one has over his life during the day, the more likely it is that his night time sleep will become satisfying again (Hauri 113).

Water Pollution Levels Turning Deadly in Punjab

Punjab, which is one of the richest states in India, is battling acute water pollution, particularly attributed to chemical toxicity. There has been an increase in the number of deaths due to cancer in the Malwa region, which has sent shock waves throughout the state. Remember, Erin Brockovich? This is a classic real life case in Punjab for us to delve into. Water Pollution: Harmful Contribution from Factories. A known environment law activist Sant Balbir Singh Seechewal, the man who brought to life so many rivers in the Majha area, stated that anti-pollution laws stay in the newspapers only and very little efforts are taken to prevent water and air pollution. According to Seechewal, there are many harmful chemicals, such as cyanide, that are flowing into the rivers, mostly from factories situated in Ludhiana, Jalandhar and Phagwara. Due to this, drinking water sources have become polluted and resulted in widespread prevalence of diseases like cancer in the Malwa region and the adjoining areas in Rajasthan. Read this â€Å"The Secrets of Haiti’s Living Dead† In Muktsar, you can just find the depressing statistics in the home district of the Punjab Chief Minister, Parkash Singh Badal. There were 1,074 deaths due to cancer between 2001 and November 2009. In Lambi, Badal’s home constituency, there were 211 cancer deaths during the same period. Water Pollution: Shocking Levels of Uranium Content in Water in Punjab Don’t be shocked by the information given on water pollution in Punjab as there is much more. In March 2009, Dr Carin Smit, a South African toxicologist, sent hair samples of mentally-ill children from Malwa region to Germany’s Microtrace Mineral Lab. On June 13, 2010, the lab reported high levels of uranium in these samples. Dr Carin Smit stated, â€Å"The hair results are surprising. We expected an arsenic exposure. Instead, over 80% of adult and children, many of which are suffering from cerebral palsy and mental retardation, showed pathological levels for uranium. † The report is surprising as there is no apparent source of uranium in the state. Executive director, Kheti Virasat Mission (KVM), Umendra Dutt stated, â€Å"with studies indicating high levels of uranium in hair samples, the situation is indeed alarming. Water Pollution: Uranium Content Exceeds Safe Limit Suggested by WHO In 2009, V D Puranik, who is heading the environmental assessment division of Bhaba Atomic Research Center, filed a report stating 2. 2-244. 2 micro grams of uranium content in one litre water sample that was brought from the Malwa region. Let’s not forget, the safe limit suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) is 15 microg ram per litre. The person in charge of Baba Farid Center for Special Children in Faridkot Pritpal, Singh said that three samples surpassed the limit of 60 micrograms uranium per litre set by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). Final Legal Take Away Tip: Punjab, a state that ushered in the Green Revolution and has been nourishing most parts of the country, is now suffering the ill effects of water pollution. Toxic material in water can migrate to hundreds of farms, homes, schools and places where people can die or suffer due to its exposure. Remember, Erin Brockovich? What we need is legal awareness and initiatives to be taken on priority so that the state government can save lives it is too late.

Gilgamesh Unwillingness to Accept Mortality - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1074 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Gilgamesh Essay Did you like this example? During the seventh century BC, in the ancient Babylonian Empire, Gilgamesh was the king of Uruk. He was two third of a god and one-third of a man. He used military forces to build a high wall and temple towers to surround the city of Uruk. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Gilgamesh Unwillingness to Accept Mortality" essay for you Create order Enkidu, Gilgameshs beloved companion was raised by wild animals in the forest. At this period, women were used to domesticate wild people. As a result, Shamhat who was a prostitute was sent to civilize Enkidu. After having some affairs with her, he was ejected from the animal kingdom. The animals no longer accepted him as their own and rejected him, because he now turned into a civilized human. Then, he tried to conquer Gilgamesh; however, Gilgamesh turned out to be his enduring friend. Together, they went to steal the trees that were forbidden for humans and killed Humbaba who was the guardian of the cedar forest. Due to this immoral act, Enkidu was punished by the gods. Enkidus death left Gilgamesh heartbroken, so, he decided to travel to the underworld to meet Utnapishtim, who was given eternal life after the flood. Gilgamesh was aiming to avoid death and brought Enkidu back to life. Unfortunately, Gilgamesh was not given immortality instead he was given an opportunity to be young again. However, the only thing he was able to bring back into his city was the story of the flood. The epic of Gilgamesh was first written in clay tablets about 2000 B.C. It was challenging to read them since it was written in Cuneiform text and only some part of the tablets were recovered and some damaged. It was not until the Mesopotamian cities were destroyed that the scientists had found libraries of clay tablets which contained the epic of Gilgamesh. The scientists tried their best to translate it and dispensed it to the rest of the world. Without these tablets, we would have never known Gilgamesh or even heard the story of the flood which Utnapishtim told him when he went through the waters of death for the search for immortality. The epic of Gilgamesh was first known from a version called he who saw the deep by a writer called sin-liqe-unninni which means the moon God is the one who accepts my prayer. he lived long ago between 1300-1000 BC. He wrote the story in the Akkadian language based on five Sumerian poems which dated even much longer than the epic of Gilgamesh. He was the one who gave the epic its final form and inscribed his name at the end of each of the eleven clay tablets. The poem had various audiences. At first I would say it was intended for the elite groups of the Sumerians, because at this period only a few members of the society were educated. The vast majority could not read or write mainly because they were poor, and Cuneiform was the only system of writing with up to six hundred characters to write words. It was difficult to learn such type of writing. Religious groups of people could have been the audience as well. Looking at the entire story, they talked about the relationship between the gods and the main characters: Gilgamesh and Enkidu. For example, Enkidu said to Gilgamesh [My god] has taken against me, my friend,, [I do not die] like one who [falls] in combat [makes his name,] but I, [I do not fall] in [combat, and shall make not my name.] Enkidu was given death because they killed Humbaba and the bull of heaven. The gods decide whom they want to punish and whom to give power to. This emphasizes that in religions, we believe that if yo u disobey God, you will be penalized for it. So, Enkidu was suffering from the sin they both committed. The author was trying to put across so many messages in the poem. I think immortality and love were the two messages provided by the author. No matter who you are, death will come your way one day. Theres no way you can avoid it. Only fame can last forever like people will tell whatever achievements you have done during your life, they can be passed from generation to generation. Secondly, the author explained how love changed Gilgamesh from a dictator to a good king and Enkidu from wild man into an honorable person. These changes were both profitable for Gilgamesh and his people because it built their relationship. For example, Gilgamesh speaking to the elderly of the town, I shall face a battle I know not. [I shall ride] a road [I know not:] give me your blessing as I go on my journey, [so I may see again] your faces [in safety,] and returned [glad at heart] through Uruks gate!. Gilgamesh at the beginning of the story was a tyrant king, but now he is asking for blessing from the e lderly of the town. This transitions showed us that Gilgamesh was not same the king that he used to be. However, Gilgamesh and Enkidus friendship made it possible for Gilgamesh to identify with his peoples interest. Gilgamesh position in the society was to protect his people against any invasion. That is the reason why he forced his people to rebuild the wall of Uruk. His powers were as strong as a rock falling from the sky. So, he occupied both the position of a king and a warrior. This can be justified when Gilgamesh spurn Ishtar, the goddess of love. She was angry and decided to release the Bull of heaven on them in other to kill Gilgamesh, but this does not only threatened him. The Bull of heaven caused famine and murdered many peoples in the city of Uruk. As a result, Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed the Bull. For example, Enkidu rushed round to the rear of the Bull, he seized it by the [tuft] of the tail. Then Gilgamesh like a butcher, brave and skillful, between the yoke of the horns and the slaughter-spot [he thrust in] his knife. they were defending their nation against the decision taken by the gods. As a king, he had every right to do whatever he wanted, since there was no branch in his kingdom that limited his power. Therefore, the epic of Gilgamesh expands our understanding of the story of the flood. Even though Gilgamesh was unsuccessful to become immortal, he became widely known for his achievement and dedication.